WPC_$ E> Te ܻ9˴*z\-T1^Þ \zW@]^U-P E,8:%F_·sbcS^04&<5PQQMuRyReS 0LT 0VTX 01W[ 0=[[\Ml_op_ 0_```#'b'b5JcJcJcJcJcJc 0>e 0Ue 0f 0f 0g 0h 0i 0j>[kldm 0n 0n 0o 0aEp 0p 0Zq 09r 0Gr 02#s 0Us 0:Qt 0t 0_u 0 ou 0kyv 0w B*yy D3y D+y 0z 0{ 06}| 0| 0:} 0h} 0F]~U6~U*~ BN M" 0&M 0nVMM M(^  0 0҈ 0 0 0 0x 0Z 09 0 0 0֐ 0 0 0a 04 0 0ѕ 0 0| 0Z 05 0 0 0 0 0O D/ D/Gv i,I\Zv4sE:)'%PuI;?zS9m&KqqHg1o8HbM<SQ>M+LQ{M 5 D *Pz 2K~cX]H;68/ua0^=P M- n1   0A  0  0C  0/ 0 0 0 0y 0D 0  0 0@ 0 0 0v 0D 0 0 0 0^^7SR                                                         !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!^"J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J#J# 0N$Acrobat Distiller0(9 Z6Times New Roman RegularX($J-'}jU(3|x(U  $    62    _ԀCivilRightsActof1866,ch.31,14Stat.27.((3$ !      0  (#$  0    $    63    _ԀWilliamsv.Georgia,67Ga.260,263(1881).- -64_FootNote    2(  d lt$2Q$\  `$Times TenRomanQ  XXXS\  `&Times New RomanS  2(  d lt$2<zo:_NoterefInTe 2 XXXQ7\  `$Times TenRomanQXXXS\  `&Times New RomanSR\  `$Times TenRoman<jl:_NoterefInNoQ$\  `$Times TenRomanQXXXS\  `&Times New RomanS\  `&Times New Roman  $    19    _ԀPhillips, ConstitutingtheGlobalGay,p.24.  $    11    _ԀMeredith,Robert_Mugabe_:Power,PlunderandTyrannyinZimbabwe,p.39.  $    8    _ԀBenedictAnderson,ImaginedCommunities:ReflectionsontheOriginandSpreadof  Nationalism(London:Verso,1983),p.15.  $    2    _Ԁ_Nikolas_ԀRose,PowersofFreedom(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1999),p.  22.64_Document    2( {  d lt$2 n &&&Q2\  `$Times TenRomanQ   XXXS\  `&Times New RomanS  2( {  d lt$2<:_1StQuoteTXT  M M   /%Z Z lt$/Q.\  `$Times TenRomanQ     ," d lt$,XXXS\  `&Times New RomanS   J  $    3    _ԀAnessayplumbingtherelationshipbetweennationalismandsexualityintheUnited  Statescouldsurelylooktothepersecutionofhomosexualityduringthe1950's.Ichose,instead,tofocusonthelate19thcenturyandtheexperiencesofAfricanAmericanslargelybecausetheirexperienceshavebeen_underdocumented_,andIsawlittlebenefitinrehearsingtheverygoodworkalreadydonebyothersonthehomophobiaoftheMcCarthyperiod.Seee.g.John_D'Emilio_, TheHomosexualMenace:ThePoliticsofSexualityinColdWarAmerica,inMakingTrouble:EssaysonGayHistory,Politics,andtheUniversity(NewYork:_Routledge_,1989).0.Normal<:Definition T  $    9    _ԀMartinMeredith,Robert_Mugabe_:Power,PlunderandTyrannyinZimbabwe  (Johannesburg:JonathanBall,2002),p.129.   $    10    _Ԁ_Andrew_ԀParker,Mary_Russo_,Doris_Sommer_ԀandPatricia_Yaeger_Ԁ_eds_.,Nationalisms&  _Sexualities_,p.5,quotingPerryAnderson, NationStatesandNationalIdentity,London  ReviewofBooks,May9,1991,p.3andJohn_Breuilly_,NationalismandtheState(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1982),p.380. e  $    12    _ԀIbid.,pp.5257.<GD:Definition L , ;1` hp x (#;  8.` hp x (#8 v  $    25    __Stoler_,RaceandtheEducationofDesire,p.3536,quotingMichelFoucault,_Resum_  des_cours_:19701982(Paris:_Julliard_,1984),p.85.   $    90    _Ԁ_Partha_Ԁ_Chatterjee_,NationalistThoughtandtheColonialWorld(Delhi:Oxford  UniversityPress1986),pp.3839. +  $    61    _ԀGeraldine_Heng_Ԁ&_Janadas_Ԁ_Devan_, StateFatherhood,inAndrewParker,Mary_Russo_,  Doris_Sommer_ԀandPatricia_Yaeger_Ԁ_eds_.,_Nationalisms_Ԁ&_Sexualities_,,p.35586Definition*+ (_2623  ..*G+M (_25   /%` ` hp x /23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  *D+M (_24   ," hp x ,23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  *A+M (_23  ` ) hp x )23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  *>+M (_22   &hhp x &23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  *;+M (_21   #p x #23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  *8+M (_20  h  p x 23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5   4  $    37    _ԀHumanRightsWatch(October2001),Egypt:HumanRightsBackground,available_at:_  http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/mena/egypt-bck-1001.htmHumanRightsWatch(October2001).   $    35    _ԀR._Radhakrishnan_Ԁ Nationalism,GenderandNarrative,inNationalismsand  _Sexualities_,p.84. Z  $    36    _ԀIbid.('z&H1      XXX(o&H2  XXX(o&H3  XXX(&H4 XXX XXX(o&H5  XXX(o&H6  XXX20Address8SP6Blockquote , , ;1` hp x (#;   8.` hp x (#8,*CITE,dl*CODEKS<6X9`(Courier NewKXXXS\  `&Times New RomanS42Emphasis6&)4Hyperlink            <:FollowedHype    4go2Keyboard KS<6X9`(Courier NewK XXXS\  `&Times New RomanS<:Preformatted/%  ,Kk (#/KS<6X9`(Courier NewKXXXS\  `&Times New RomanS/%  ,Kk (#/<:zBottom of =J( **=  B  ?T%2A`Arial?-K -  XXXS\  `&Times New RomanS&0 d dIIII'dxd'dxd<:zTop of For=J(**=  B  ?T%2A`Arial?-K -  XXXS\  `&Times New RomanS0Kl.SampleKS<6X9`(Courier NewKS\  `&Times New RomanS0.Strong 8dl6TypewriterKS<6X9`(Courier NewKXXXS\  `&Times New RomanS42Variable:8HTML MarkupB      2 0CommentB  <6X9`(Courier New%2A`Arial d2J+M 0_level1  X 2( ` hp x 223  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  <:Default ParaXXXXXX L  $    15    _Ԁ_Widney_ԀBrown,IntroductiontoSouthAfricanReport,HumanRightsWatchandthe  InternationalGayandLesbianHumanRightsCommission,(2002)(onfilewith_author)._   $    32    _Ԁ HowtoRiganElection:EvidenceofaSystematicCampaigntoRigaFreeandFair  Poll,areportbytheZimbabweHumanRightsNGOForum,November2001.President_Mugabe_wasnamedinacivillawsuitintheU.S.seekingdamagesfororchestrating"murder,torture,   terrorism,rape,beatings,anddestructionofproperty...."againsthispoliticaloppositioninadvanceoftheJune2000parliamentaryelections._Tachiona_Ԁv._Mugabe_,169_F.Supp_.2d259(_S.D.N.Y._Ԁ2001).   $    24    _Ԁ _Mugabe_:UKset'gaygangsters'onme,BBCNews,November8,1999,  _http_://_news.bbc.co.uk_/hi/_english_/world/_africa_/newsid_508000/508712._stm_.tQ-  $    13    _ԀSeeHumanRightsWatch(October2001),Egypt:HumanRightsBackground,  http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/mena/egypt-bck-1001.htm2G+M 0_level2   /%` ` hp x /23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  2D+M 0_level3   ," hp x ,23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  2A+M 0_level4  ` ) hp x )23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  2>+M 0_level5   &hhp x &23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  2;+M 0_level6   #p x #23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  28+M 0_level7  h  p x 23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  25+M 0_level8   pp x 23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  22+M 0_level9    x 23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  2JM 0_levsl1  X 2( ` hp x 223  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  2GM 0_levsl2   /%` ` hp x /23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  2DM 0_levsl3   ," hp x ,23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  2AM 0_levsl4  ` ) hp x )23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  2>M 0_levsl5   &hhp x &23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  2;M 0_levsl6   #p x #23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  28M 0_levsl7  h  p x 23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  25M 0_levsl8   pp x 23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  22M 0_levsl9    x 23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  2JM 0_levnl1  X 2( ` hp x 223   5+ ` hp x 5  2GM 0_levnl2   /%` ` hp x /23   5+ ` hp x 5  2DM 0_levnl3   ," hp x ,23   5+ ` hp x 5  2AM 0_levnl4  ` ) hp x )23   5+ ` hp x 5  2>M 0_levnl5   &hhp x &23   5+ ` hp x 5  2;M 0_levnl6   #p x #23   5+ ` hp x 5  28M 0_levnl7  h  p x 23   5+ ` hp x 5  25M 0_levnl8   pp x 23   5+ ` hp x 5  22M 0_levnl9    x 23   5+ ` hp x 5  I)1dxdI)2dxd  $    17    _ԀBBCNews,August12,1998,http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/audiovideo/programmes  /crossing_continents/newsid_143000/143169.stm.   $    30    _Ԁ_Magaya_Ԁv._Magaya_,[1999]3_LRC_Ԁ35,(1)_ZLR_Ԁ100(SC)16Feb.1999. "  $    14    __Bornwell_Ԁ_Chakaodza_,theeditorofthestateownednewspaperTheHeraldsaidthe  mediashouldattackhomosexualityinordertohelpprotectZimbabweancultureandfamilyvalues.TheHeraldhasalsorunadvertisementsplacedbyDr.Michael_Mawema_,aprominentchurchman,callingfora"crusade"againsthomosexuals,as"Godcommandsthedeathofsexualperverts."BBCNews,August12,1998,http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/audiovideo/_programmes_/_crossing_continents_/newsid_143000/143169._stm_. ?  $    38    _Ԁ_Hossam_Ԁ_Bahgat_, ExplainingEgyptsTargetingofGays,MiddleEastResearchand  InformationProject,PressInformationNote64.(2001),p.2. R  $    39    _ԀInternationalGayandLesbianHumanRightsCommission, ActionAlert,Egypt:  EmergencyCourtTrialsforHomosexualSuspects,availableat:http://www.iglhrc.org/news/press/pr_010703.html_(2001)._   $    40    _ԀInternationalGayandLesbianHumanRightsCommission, ActionAlert,23  PresumedHomosexualsSentencedtoHardLabor ,availableat:  4 O  5  http://www.iglhrc.org/world/africa/Egypt2001Nov_2.html6O#   7 QԀ_(2001)._  $    42    _Ԁ_Bahgat_, ExplainingEgyptsTargetingof_Gays,_Ԁ_p._Ԁ2. *  $    34    _ԀScottLong, FundamentalistSex:Sexuality,Privacy,andtheStateinaGlobal  Economy,(2002)(draftonfilewith_author).___ 0  $    29    _ԀRobert_Rotberg_,, InZimbabweaReignofTerror,BostonGlobe,November21,  2001._Mugabe_ssupportforthemembersofhisSupremeCourt,especiallyitswhiteChiefJusticeAnthony_Gubbay_,wasshortlivedashehassoughttoousttheentirejudiciarysincetheCourtruledagainst_Mugabe_sseizuresofwhiteownedland. ReluctantJudgeDefies_Mugabe_,TheGuardian,March2,2001.Sincethen,hehasreplacedthreemembersoftheCourt,includingtheChiefJustice,withpro_ZANU_ԀPFjudges.   $    50    _ԀThosesexworkersinCairowhowereforeignnationals,notasmallnumber,couldnot  beregulatedbyEgyptianlawasCapitulations,bilateraltreatiesbetweenEgyptandvariousEuropeannations,containedprovisionsthatimmunizedEuropeansfromEgyptianlawandgaveforeignerstherighttobetriedonlyintheirownconsularcourts.van_Nieuwkerk_, ATradeLikeAnyOther,p.45;Dunne,Sexualityandthe CivilizingProcessinModernEgypt,pp.143,19799;Ruiz, ThePashasProstitutes,p.16.   $    48    _Ԁ_LEgyptienne_(February1925),pp.3839;Dunne, Sexualityandthe Civilizing  ProcessinModernEgypt,p._300._Ԁ_Omina_Ԁ_Shakry_ԀhasobservedthatturnofthecenturyEgyptianfeminists,like_Sharawi_, situatedtheirownprojectsasadefenseofIslamandacritiqueof_taqlid_.TheirprojectswereoftenconceptualizedasanillustrationthattrueIslam!thatis,Islam k unadulteratedbytraditionalaccretions,suchassuperstitiouspractices!wasentirelycompatiblewithmodernity._Omina_Ԁ_Shakry_, SchooledMothersandStructuredPlay:ChildRearinginTurnoftheCenturyEgypt,inRemakingWomen:FeminismandModernityintheMiddleEast,ed._Lila_ԀAbu_Lughod_,p.148.   $    53    _ԀScottLong&_Hossam_Ԁ_Bahgat_,NotesontheRegulationofIllicitSexualityinEgypt,  (draft,2002,onfilewithauthor).   $    54    _ԀHumanRightsWatch, Egypt:HumanRightsBackground,availableat:  http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/mena/egypt-bck-1001.htm,(October_2001)._ w  $    55    _Ԁ_Amira_Ԁ_Howeidy_, WatchThisSpace,Al_Ahram_ԀWeeklyOnLineIssueNo.509,  availableat:_http://www.ahram.org.eg/weekly/2000/509/eg3.htm._ ?  $    56    _ԀBruceDunne, PowerandSexualityintheMiddleEast,MiddleEastReport,(1998),  p.10;JudithTucker, GenderandIslamicHistory,(WashingtonD.C.;AmericanHistoricalAssociation,1993),pp.1933. 1  $    58    _ԀJoshuaHammer, GayEgyptintheDock:TheBigCrackdownMayReflectCairos  OwnInsecurities,Newsweek,_http://stacks.msnbc.com/news/698817.asp#BODY,_Ԁ(2002).  $    59    _ԀDunne, PowerandSexualityintheMiddleEast,_pp._Ԁ910. I  $    57    _ԀNeville_Hoad_,Wild(e)MenandSavages:TheHomosexualandthePrimitivein  Darwin,WildeandFreud,(ColumbiaUniversity,unpublisheddissertation,1998)_p._Ԁ36.  $    '    _ԀProfessorofLawandCoDirectorCenterfortheStudyofLawandCulture,Columbia  UniversitySchoolofLaw.   $    21    _ԀPhillips, ZimbabweanLawandtheProductionofaWhiteMansDisease,pp.476  77;InternationalGayandLesbianHumanRightsCommission, ActionAlert,AntiGayRhetoricEscalatesinZimbabwe,(January1996)availableat:http://_www.iglhrc.org_/world/_africa_/Zimbabwe1996Jan_2.html.   $    4    _ԀGeorgeL._Mosse_,NationalismandSexuality:MiddleClassMoralityandSexualNorms  inModernEurope(Madison,WI:UniversityofWisconsinPress,1985);AnnLaura_Stoler_,RaceandtheEducationofDesire:FoucaultsHistoryofSexualityandtheColonialOrderofThings(Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,1995);AndrewParker,Mary_Russo_,Doris_Sommer_ԀandPatricia_Yaeger_Ԁ_eds_.,Nationalisms&_Sexualities_Ԁ(NewYork:_Routledge_,1992).  $    16    _ԀPhillips, ZimbabweanLawandtheProductionofaWhiteMans_Disease,_Ԁp.481.  $    18    _ԀPhillipssummarizesthesetraditionsin ZimbabweanLawandtheProductionofa  WhiteMansDisease,p.474. ]  $    44    _ԀKarinvan_Nieuwkerk_, ATradeLikeAnyOther,FemaleSingersandDancersin  Egypt(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1995),45;Dunne,Sexualityandthe CivilizingProcessinModernEgypt,p.139.  $    20    _ԀPhillips, ZimbabweanLawandtheProductionofaWhiteMansDisease,p._475._   $    45    _Ԁvan_Nieuwkerk_, ATradeLikeAnyOther,p.467noteshowlawsregulating  prostitutionweregrossly_underenforced_ԀbyBritishlegalactorsduringWorldWarIwhenCairobecauseasignificantsitewhereBritish,Australianandothertroopswerestationed.SeealsoMarioM.Ruiz, ThePashasProstitutes:RethinkingWomen,theState,andFemaleProstitutioninNineteenthCenturyEgypt,WorkingPaper,(InstituteforResearchonWomenandGender,UniversityofMichigan,1997). .  $    46    _ԀDunne,Sexualityandthe CivilizingProcessinModernEgypt,p.206.Eightyfour  thousandBritish,AustralianandNewZealandtroopsweredeployedtoEgyptinJanuary1915.Ibid.,p.209.   $    47    _Ԁ_Yunan_Ԁ_Labib_Ԁ_Rizk_, A_Diwan_ԀofContemporaryLife,Al_Ahram_ԀWeeklyOnLine  IssueNo._537_Ԁ(2001).  $    49    _ԀDunne,Sexualityandthe CivilizingProcessinModernEgypt,p.302.  $    43    _ԀBruceDunne,Sexualityandthe CivilizingProcessinModernEgypt,unpublished  dissertation,(GeorgetownUniversity,1996),pp.195252.  $    51    _Ԁvan_Nieuwkerk_, ATradeLikeAnyOther,p._47._  $    52    _ԀDunne,Sexualityandthe CivilizingProcessinModernEgypt,pp.306311.  $    1    _ԀMichelFoucault,TheHistoryofSexualityVolume1:AnIntroduction,(NewYork:  VintageBooks,1990),p._103._ 2  $    5    _Ԁ_Stoler_,RaceandtheEducationofDesire,p.34,referencingtheworkof_Mosse_,  Nationalismand_Sexuality._ I  $    41    _InternationalGayandLesbianHumanRightsCommission, ActionAlert:Cairo52  AcquittedMenBackInCourt,availableat:_http://www.iglhrc.org/world/africa/Egypt2002Jun_2.html,_Ԁ(2002). 4  $    64    _ԀOfficeofAssistantCommissioner,BureauofRefugees,FreedmenandAbandoned  Lands,CircularNo.6,Tallahassee,Fla.(Apr.3,1866),RecordGroup105,M826,Roll28,NationalArchives,Washington,D.C.   $    65    _ԀXXXXSeeKatherineM.Franke,BecomingaCitizen:ReconstructionEraRegulationof  AfricanAmericanMarriages,YaleJournalofLaw&Humanities11#XXXXX#XXXXԀ(1999):_251.#XXXX>#_ !  $    66    _ԀDavidScott,RefashioningFutures:CriticismAfter_Postcoloniality_,(Princeton:  PrincetonUniversityPress:1999),_p._Ԁ52.   $    67    _ԀNotwithstandingthefactthattheFugitiveSlaveActremainedgoodlawuntilmid  1864,ActofJune28,1864,ch.166,13Stat.200(repealing theFugitiveSlaveActofeighteenhundredandfifty,andallActsandPartsofActsfortheRenditionofFugitiveSlaves),itwasfederalpolicywellbeforethattimetotreatescapedslavesas _contrabands_recognizingtheirstatusinbetweenconfiscatedpropertyandhumanrefugees.InMay1861,GeneralBenjaminButlerdeclaredfugitiveslaves _contrabands_,onthegroundthattheFugitiveSlaveActdidnotapplyinaforeigncountry"Virginia.SeeThe_Contrabands_ԀatFortressMonroe,AtlanticMonthly8(1861):626,627;seealsoLeonF._Litwack_,BeenintheStormSoLong(NewYork:VintageBooks,1979),pp.5253;VernonLaneWharton,TheNegroinMississippi,1865!1890,(NewYork:HarperandRow,1947),pp.2325.  B  $    68    _ԀIn1862,JohnEatonwasappointedbyGeneralGranttosetup"contrabandcamps,"  settlementsthathousedBlackfugitivesinTennesseeandnorthernMississippi.HerbertG._Gutman_,TheBlackFamilyinSlaveryandFreedom,1750-1925,(NewYork:VintageBooks,1979),p.57;seealso_W.E._Ԁ_Burghardt_ԀDuBois, TheFreedmensBureau,AtlanticMonthly87(1901),p.35455.   $    69    _ԀLetterfromHenry_ Rowntree_ ԀtoContrabandReliefCommission,JeffersonDavis  Mansion(Apr.13,1864),_ RG_ Ԁ105,Entry2150,at1011,NationalArchives._ Rowntree_ sworkdocumentingthestateofthefreedmenandwomenisnotableashewasemployedbothbytheContrabandReliefSocietyofCincinnatiandtheSocietyofFriends"privatereliefandmissionaryorganizationsthatworkedhandinhandwiththenascentpublicreliefagenciestorebuildtheSouthafterthewar.SeealsoJamesE._ Yeatman_ ,WesternSanitary_ Commn_ ,AReportontheConditionoftheFreedmenoftheMississippi(1864)(containingareportdatedDec.17,1863,describingthedestituteconditionsoffreedmenthroughoutMississippi).  q  $    70    _ԀReportofJohnEaton,GeneralSuperintendentofFreedmen,DepartmentofTennessee  (Apr.29,1863),_R.G._Ԁ94,M619,roll200(NationalArchives,Washington,_D.C.),_Ԁpp.89-90[hereinafterEatonReport]._Gutman_Ԁreportsthat"theearliest'contrabandmarriage'forwhicharecordexistsoccurredduringthefirstweekofSeptemberin1861."_Gutman_,TheBlackFamilyinSlaveryandFreedom,p.412. +  $    71    _ԀSpecialOrders,No.15(Mar.28,1864),inEatonReport,pp.89-90;seealso_Gutman_,  TheBlackFamilyinSlaveryandFreedom,_p.18._   $    72    _ԀReportbyChaplainWarren(May18,1864),includedinEatonReport,_p____._Ԁ89-90.Document0zzFN_B129   $    73    _ԀFormalmarriageperformedtheveryimportantsocialfunctionoftamingwanton  licentiousnessandcivilizinguncontrollabledesire:_ [_ԀT]hefirstobjectofmarriagestillistoregulate[sexualpassion]. SocietyandMarriage,TheNation10(1870):332Document0zzSDUNumber38   $    74    _ԀStatementofCol.WilliamA.Pile,TestimonytakeninKentucky,Tennessee,and  Missouri,NovemberandDecember1863,NovemberandDecember1863,theAm.Freedmen'sInquiry_Comm'n_,St.Louis,Mo.,RecordGroup94,M619,roll201,frame139(NationalArchives,Washington,D.C.).  $    26    _ԀZimbabweWomenFighttoPutGenderontheLandAgenda,TheGuardian,January_6,_  1999. t  $    28    _ԀWelshman_Ncube_, TheDecisionin_Katekwe_Ԁv._Muchabaiwa_:ACritique,Zimbabwe  LawReview1&2,p._217.___  $    75    _ԀScott,RefashioningFutures,_p._Ԁ47. N  $    31    _ԀThecomplexityofthisissuerevolves,insignificantpart,aroundZimbabweanlawthat  requiresthatdisputesastolandsuccessionorinheritanceshallbegovernedby thecustomsandusagesofthetribeorpeopletowhich[thedeceased]belonged.Section68(1)oftheAdministrationofEstatesAct.Yet,thisexceptiontothegeneralruleofmoderncommonorstatutorylawapplyinginlegaldisputesinZimbabweisanartifactofcolonialrule.TheBritishSouthAfricanCompanysettledRhodesiaunderachartergrantedbyQueenVictoriawhichheldthatincasesconcerningnatives,customarylawwouldapplysolongastheparticularcustomwasnotdeemedtobe repugnanttonaturaljusticeormorality.1889CharteroftheBritishSouthAfricaCompany._Mahmood_Ԁ_Mamdani_Ԁhasnotedthisreservationoffamilyandpropertylawtothedomainofcustomarylawascharacteristicofcolonialapproachestogoverningthenative._Mahmood_Ԁ_Mamdani_,WhenVictimsBecomeKillers:Colonialism,Nativism,andtheGenocideinRwanda.(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,_2001)._  $    76    _ԀEatonReport,_p._Ԁ8990. >  $    33    _Ԁ"Wearegoingtotakethelandandwearenotgoingtopayacentforthesoil."   ZimbabweWomenFighttoPutGenderontheLandAgenda,TheGuardian,January_6,_Ԁ1999. |  $    77    _ԀIborrowthismetaphorfromScottLong. ,  $    78    _ԀMarriedAfricanAmericanmeninSouthCarolinawereforcedbythestatetosupport  theirfamilies,andiftheyfailedtodoso,weresubjecttoajudgeforciblybindingthemtoworkforrenewableyearterms--usuallyintheserviceofformerslaveowners.ASouthCarolinalawprovidedthat0  [a]husband,notdisabled,whohasbeenthusconvictedofhavingabandonedorturnedawayhiswife,orhasbeenshowntofailinmaintaininghiswifeandchildren,maybeboundtoservicebythedistrictjudge,fromyeartoyear,andsomuchoftheprofitsofhislaborasmayberequisiteappliedtothemaintenanceofhiswifeandchildren. (#(# Actof1865,1865S.C.Acts291,292.SeealsoAmy_Dru_ԀStanley, BeggarsCan'tBeChoosers:CompulsionandContractin_Postbellum_ԀAmerica,JournalofAmericanHistory78(1992),_pp._1283-88. .  $    79    _ԀNancy_Cott_, MarriageandWomen'sCitizenshipintheUnitedStates,1830-1934,  AmericanHistoricalReview103(1998),_p._Ԁ1452.  $    80    _ԀFranke,BecomingACitizen,_pp._Ԁ30607.   $    81    _ԀMississippiabandonedtheconvictleasesystemin1890,Tennesseein1895,Georgiain  1908,Floridain1924,andNorthCarolinain1933.F.__Green,_ Some_ԀAspectsoftheConvictLeaseSystemintheSouthernStates,inTheJames_Sprunt_ԀStudiesinHistoryandPoliticalScience:EssaysinSouthernHistory(1949),p.121. k  $    82    _Ԁ_Gayatri_Ԁ_Chakravorty_Ԁ_Spivak_, ThreeWomensTextsandaCritiqueofImperialism,  CriticalInquiry12(1)_(1985),_Ԁp.253.   $    83    _Ԁ_Nikolas_ԀRosenicelyassembles_Althusserian_Ԁnotionsofinterpellation,_Foucaldian_  conceptsofdisciplineandvariouspostcolonialapproachestotheproductionofnativesubjectivityinhisconceptofinscriptiondevices.Rose,PowersofFreedom,p.37.   $    84    _ԀParentsofblackchildrenfoundthemselvespowerlesstoprotecttheirchildrenfroman  oppressivechildapprenticesystem.Judgeswerepermittedtobindtowhiteemployersthosechildrenwhoseparentsweredeterminedtobeunabletosupportthem. Toblacks,suchapprenticeshipsrepresentednothinglessthanacontinuationofslavery._Foner_Ԁ(1988):201.Thelawsempoweringjudgestoremovechildrenfromtheirparents,oftenaftertheyhadjustbeenreunitedattheendofslavery, cameclosetolegalizedkidnapinginmanyinstances,deprivingparentsofchildrenifawhitejudgedeemeditbetterforthehabitsandcomfortofachildtobeboundouttoawhiteguardian._Litwack_,BeenintheStormSoLong,_p._Ԁ237. T  $    85    _ԀHartmandefines burdenedindividualityasthestateof beingfreedfromslaveryand  freeofresources,emancipatedandsubordinated,selfpossessedandindebted,equalandinferior,liberatedandencumbered,sovereignanddominated,citizenandsubject._Saidiya_ԀV.Hartman,ScenesofSubjection:Terror,Slavery,andSelfMakinginNineteenthCenturyAmerica,(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1997),_p._Ԁ117. 3  $    86    _ԀEve_Kosofsky_ԀSedgwick, Queer_Performativity_,_GLQ_:JournalofLesbian&Gay  Stud.1.(1993),p.15.   $    87    _ԀColinGordon, GovernmentalRationality:InIntroduction,inTheFoucaultEffect:  Studiesin_Governmentality_Ԁ(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1991),p.3;MichelFoucault, _Governmentality_,in TheFoucault_Effect._____  $    88    _ԀRose,PowersofFreedom,_p._Ԁ25.http://www.iglhrc.org/world/africa/Egypt2001Nov_2.html  $    60    _ԀForeignnationalswhowerepickedupwerereleasedandnotcharged.*5+M (_19   pp x 23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  *2+M (_18    x 23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  * (_1723  Ԁ*GM (_16   /%` ` hp x /23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  *DM (_15   ," hp x ,23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  *AM (_14  ` ) hp x )23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  *>M (_13   &hhp x &23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  *;M (_12   #p x #23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  *8M (_11  h  p x 23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  *5M (_10   pp x 23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  (2M &_9    x 23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  ( &_823  (GM &_7   /%` ` hp x /23   5+ ` hp x 5  (DM &_6   ," hp x ,23   5+ ` hp x 5  (AM &_5  ` ) hp x )23   5+ ` hp x 5  (>M &_4   &hhp x &23   5+ ` hp x 5  (;M &_3   #p x #23   5+ ` hp x 5  (8M &_2  h  p x 23   5+ ` hp x 5  (5M &_1   pp x 23   5+ ` hp x 5  &2M $_    x 23   5+ ` hp x 5   -  $    6    _ԀSeee.g._Lila_ԀAbu_Lughod_,RemakingWomen:FeminismandModernityintheMiddle  East(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1998);_Mervet_Ԁ_Hatem_, SecularistandIslamistDiscoursesonModernityinEgyptandtheEvolutionofthePostColonialNationState,inIslam,GenderandSocialChange,ed.YvonneHaddadandJohn_Esposito_Ԁ(NewYorkandOxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1998);Margot_Dadran_,Feminists,IslamandNation:GenderandtheMakingofModernEgypt(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1995). I  $    7    _ԀOliverPhillips, ConstitutingtheGlobalGay:IssuesofIndividualSubjectivityand  SexualityinSouthernAfrica,Carl_Stychin_ԀandDidiHerman_eds_.,SexualityintheLegalArena(London:_Athlone_ԀPress,2000);OliverPhillips, ZimbabweanLawandtheProductionofaWhiteMans_Disease,_ԀSocialandLegalStudies,6(4)(1997):471491.  $    27    _Ԁ_Katekwe_Ԁv._Muchabaiwa_Ԁ1984(2)_ZLR_Ԁ112(S).  $    89    _Ԁ_Stoler_,_Race_ԀandtheEducationofDesire,p.34.  $    22    _ԀPhillips, ConstitutingtheGlobalGay:IssuesofIndividualSubjectivityandSexuality  inSouthernAfrica,p.31.  $    23    _ԀMeredith,Robert_Mugabe_:Power,PlunderandTyrannyinZimbabwe,p.130.(O$ !  _8XXdd8   XX_IllegalizedSexualDissent:SexualitiesandNationalisms #XX#  KatherineFranke'!  #  '        ColumbiaLawSchool  AU) xdEc xA d     Dangeroustimesimplicitlyauthorizestateviolenceandtheuseofarangeoftacticsto ]  managedanger,restoreorderandprotectthesafetyofthestateanditscitizens.Nationalunityiscalledfor,ifnot,demanded,anddissentersareexcisedaspartof them,not us.Todissentistocollaboratewiththosewhoposeadangertothestateanditspeople.Almostinevitablythetacticsofgovernanceduringdangeroustimesincludethemanagementofdissent.  Ordinarily,dissentisreactiveinnature.Thestateassumesapostureinresponsetodanger,andsomeoneoragroupofsomeonesstandupanddeclare: notinmyname,notinournames.Inthissense,thedissentingsubjectemergesoutofresistencetotheexerciseofpoliticalpower.Whilstthestateisactivelyinvolvedinmanufacturingconsenttoitspolicies,thedissenterishardatworkunderminingorresistingthoseverypolicies.Thus,whilethedissenterisanepiphenomenonofgovernmentaction,heorsheisnotintegraltothestatesaims,indeed,thedissenterssubjectivitydevelopsbeyondthepoliticalhorizonsetbythestate.  Dissentbecomesadifferent,andinsomewaysmoreinteresting,phenomenonwhenthedissenteremergesnotfromoutsidethepoliticalhorizondrawnbythestate,butratherfromwithinit,andasanintegralpartofthestatesprojectofgovernance.Inthesecases,thestatecallsupasetofsubjectswhoareinsomefundamentalsensepositionedtogainstate,ifnotpublic,disfavor.Thesesubjectsarethenisolated,excisedorotherwisemanagedinwaysthat }'"' furtherstateinterests.TheseOthers,havinghadasubjectivitycraftedforthembythestateusuallybylawfindthemselvesbothassumingamarginalizedidentityanddissentingfromgovernmentregulationordisciplineinwaysthatareworthmarkingasdifferentfromthatofthemorecommonpoliticaldissenter.Theseoutlaws,oncemarginalized,canbeusefultostateactorsinmanagingperiodsofstresstothestate,ordangeroustimes.Indangeroustimes,asinallothertimes,governancenecessarilyincludesthecreationofarangeofgovernablesubjects.Inthisessay,Idiscussseveralcircumstancesinwhichtheproductionofsexualoutlawsprovestobeaconvenientmethodofmanagingperiodsofpublic,ifnotstate,stress.  Eveninperiodswhenanationcanbeunderstoodtobetakingsignificantstepstowardexpandingfreedom,whenfundamentalreformsareundertakentomaterializeabreakwithapriorignobleregime,andwhenthestoryofanationconformstoaliberalnarrativeofprogressawayfromunfreedomandtowardgreaterautonomyandequality,wecanseethestateanxiouslymanagingstressanddeployingtechnologiesofgovernancethatinscribecertaintypesofgovernablesubjectsandthendiscipliningtheirdissent.  Weallknowbynowthatsexisanespeciallydensetransferpointforpower.'!  #  1      ׀ ,| Dangeroustimesteachushowthesetransferpointsbecomekeytotheexerciseofstatepowerandcontrol.Inthisessay,Iexaminehowsexandsexualitycanbeusedbythestateduringsignificantmomentsoftransition,aswellasperiodsofstateformationandreformation,bothinidentifyingdangerandasatacticofgovernance.InthisessayIexaminethreeinstanceswhensexandsexualityhavebeenparticularlyusefultotheprojectofmanagingpoliticalinstabilityor F'"& transition.Theseexamplesillustratehowundersomecircumstances,inresponsetotransitionalstress,thestategainsanofficialsexuality,sourcesofthreataresexualized,andthemanagementofsexbecomesatoolofgovernancethatproducesindividualunfreedominthenameofexpandingnationalfreedomorindependence.Ineachoftheseexamples,anantagonismissetupbetweentheinterestsofthenationandthoseoftheoutlaw,whoultimatelyassumestheroleofdissenter.Whensetupinthismanner,thesingularmustyieldtothemany.  First,IlookatthesexualpoliticsofruleofPresidentRobertMugabeinZimbabwe.Mugabehasfoundthedeploymentofsexasaparticularlyusefulwedgeissueinhismissionofnationalfreedomthatis,freedomfromcolonialrulebytheBritish.Mugabehaseffectivelyundertakenbrutallyhomophobicpoliciesbyframingthemwithinapostcolonialstorythathasenormouspurchasewithhispeople.YetdrivingthisdeploymentofahomophobicantiimperialistprogromhasbeenashrewdplantodisempowerarapidlygrowingcivilsocietyinZimbabwe.Mugabesrepressivecampaignsattackinghomosexualshavesupportedaneverradiatingsetofattacksagainstwomen,politicalopponentsandwhitefarmers.Onewaytoreadthistrajectoryistoseethattheassaultonhomosexualitywastheentrypointinthecreationofacultureofintolerance.Here,aselsewhere,sexhasbeenlookedtoasaparticularlyusefultransferpointfortheconsolidationofpostcolonialpower.  NextIturntoEgyptandrecentgovernmentledcampaignsofhighlypublicandpublicizedcriminalprosecutionsofmenallegedtobegay.ItistemptingtoreadthesepublicspectaclesaseventssimilartothosebeingundertakenineastAfricannations:theEgyptiangovernmentbluntlydemonstratingitsIslamiccredentialstoadomesticandpanArabaudience,andinsodoing,consolidatingitsownpower.Yet,closerexaminationrevealsthattheseshow *:&* trialsemergedaspartofanongoingpostcolonialstrugglewithinEgyptthatbeganinthe1930swiththerepealofBritishcoloniallawslicensingprostitution.Againstthishistory,asetofhomosexualsocialandlegalsubjectshavebeencreatedbytheMubarakgovernment,andoncesoformedanddisciplined, humanrightsridesintotherescuetoliberatetheseperverselyformeddissentersfromsocialandlegaldiscipline.The(invited?)assistanceoftheinternationalhumanrightsestablishmenthasfurtherreinforcedpostcolonialnationalistrhetoricthatlocatedindividualrightsasaWesternnormthatthreatenstoundermineauthenticAfricanculture.  Finally,IturntotheUnitedStatesintheperiodimmediatelyfollowingthecivilwar,whenthefederalgovernmentundertooktwoenormouslychallengingtasks:reunifyingthenationafteradevastatingcivilwar,andmanagingthetransitionofAfricanAmericansfromenslavementtocitizenship.Havingidentifieditselfwiththefundamentalvaluesoffreedomandequality,incontradistinctiontothevanquishedconfederatestates,thefederalgovernmentdemonstrateditscommitmenttothesevaluesinandthroughthewayitmanagedtheprojectofcivilizingfreedmenandwomen.Remarkably,however,thepracticesoffreedomundertakenbythefederalgovernmentintheimmediatepostwarperiodwerefocused,notentirely,butquiteprominently,ontheregulationoffreedmenandwomenssexualpractices.Alongdeniedright N tomarrywasawardedtoAfricanAmericansimmediatelyuponemancipation,howeverthisnew !   domainoffreedomwassoonrevealedtobemoreatestadministeredbythestatethanatrumptobewieldedagainststateinfringementofindividualautonomy.Successfulparticipationinandcompliancewiththerulesoftheinstitutionofmarriagewerethegroundsuponwhichfreedmenandwomenweretoprovethattheydeservedtobetreatedascitizens.  Thusthecontainmentoffreedmenssexualityintomarriage,a spaceofregulated *:&* freedom,  #  2      ׀becameoneoftheprincipletechniquesofgovernanceusedbytheU.S.government,  tocreateparticularlygovernablesubjects.b  #  3        f    GeorgeMosse,AnnStolerandothershaveobservedaproductive,ifnotreproductive,relationshipbetweensexualityandnationalism.   #  4      ׀Stolerhasnotedthat thedistinctionbetween & v normalityandabnormality,betweenbourgeoisrespectabilityandsexualdeviance,andbetweenmoraldegeneracyandeugeniccleansingweretheelementsofadiscoursethatmadeunconventionalsexanationalthreatandthusputapremiumonmanagedsexualityforthehealthofthestate.  #  5      ׀Myprojecthereistoilluminatenotonlythevalidityofthisobservation,butalso n  thecircumstancesunderwhichaformofstatesponsoredbiopoliticscallsupunconventionallysexedsubjectsintheserviceofmanagingstresstothestate.Thus,sexcanbeusefullyputto b work,asIhavediscussedelsewhere,i)asawedgeissuethatintroducesaclimateofintolerance 4 byastateseekingtofrustratethegrowthofcivilsociety(Zimbabwe);ii)asastructural  componentofpostcolonialnationbuilding(Egypt);oriii)tocontrolandsubordinateapopulationevenwhenundertakeninthenameoffreedomforthatsamepopulation(freedmenandwomeninU.S.reconstruction). h Thesesexualoutlawsthenfindthemselvesbothpositioned T asanddrawntotheroleofdissenterresistingtheprocessbywhichtheirsubjugationhasrenderedtheminternalenemiesofthestate.  Comparativeworkofthiskindalwaysposestheriskofoversimplifyingcomplexsocialhistoriesandgenealogies,ifnotworse,skimmingtoachievecoherenceacrossculturesandtimes.IdonotprofesstobeascholarofeitherofthetwononU.S.examplesIprovidehere,othersarefarmorefamiliarwiththedoublehistoriesofnationalismandsexualityinEgypt  #  6      ׀and @ Zimbabwe  #  7      .Iofferthiscomparativeanalysisforthelimitedpurposeofilluminatinghowatkey b moments,andinthreeverydifferentsites,thenationisimaginediswaysthatdependuponaninterestinginterdependencebetweennationalandsexualalterity.0  I.DisciplinaryAdministrationofAfricanNationalSexualCitizenshipinPostColonial Z Zimbabwe .~(#(#   BenedictAndersonregardsnationalismasbestunderstoodasmoresimilartokinshipor N religionthanliberalismorfascism.  #  8      ׀SurelythisistrueofRobertMugabesapproachtonation  buildinginpostcolonialZimbabwe.MugabehassoldtohispeopleanotionofanindependentandsovereignZimbabwethathasrestedupontheideaofindigenization,yetwheresomepeoplearemoreindigenousthanothers.b  #  9      ׀Whilethisisnotanuncommonpostcolonialnationbuilding & v strategy,Mugabehasundertakensuchataskinamannerthatexplicitlyconstructs nationalidentitynotonthebasisofitsownintrinsicpropertiesbutasafunctionofwhatit(presumably)isnot.Implyingsomeelementofalterityforitsdefinition,anationineluctablyshapedbywhatisopposes.  #  10      ׀ThedifferenceagainstwhichMugabehasconstitutedZimbabweankinship n  andnationalismhasbeen,ofcourse,racialinnature,butmorethananysubSaharanpostcolonialleader,MugabehasusedsexualitytoconsolidatepowerinapostcolonialregimethreatenedbothextraterritoriallybythelikesoftheWorldBank,anddomesticallybyexpandinginstitutionsofcivilsociety.  InZimbabwe,formerlyRhodesia,awhitemajoritygovernmentdeclaredindependencefromBritainin1965,andwhitesgrabbedthemostvaluableresourcesinthecountry,leavingblackstostruggleinextremepovertyonunproductiveland.Aprotractedwarforliberationensuedinwhichlandredistributionwasoneofthecentralissues.In1980theBritishhelpedbrokeraresolutiontothewarforliberationfromwhiterule,andwhenelectionswereheld, !   RobertMugabe,leaderoftheZimbabweAfricanNationalUnionPatrioticFront(ZanuPF),thedominantliberationmovement,wonaresoundingvictory.  #  11      ׀    ForashortwhileMugabesgovernmentheldouthopeofofferingtheZimbabwianpeopleapeacefulandrelativelyprosperoustransitionawayfromBritishruletoindependence.PromisingreconciliationwiththewhiteRhodesianswhoremainedinthecountryaftertheelections,Mugabeinitiallyreachedouttotheformerwhiteleadershipinamannerthatcaughtmostwhiteelitesbysurprise.Yet,after18months,Mugabedeclaredthat thehoneymoonisoverandheunleashedviciousattacksagainstwhitesaswellashispoliticalcompetition.!y  #  12      ׀ n  OngoingattacksagainstMugabefromSouthAfricaonaccountofhisMarxistpolitics,andtheadoptionofanEconomicStructuralAdjustmentProgram(ESAP)in1991ledtoincreasesininterestratesandinflation,whichproblemswerecompoundedbydroughtin1992and1995.LandreformwasnotintegratedintotheESAP,whilelargescalecommercialfarmersweretheprincipalbeneficiariesofreformspromotingagriculturalexports.Thestockmarketfellandmanufacturingcontractedby40percentbetween1992and1996.By1997,theMugabegovernmentwasfacedwithaseriouseconomicandpoliticalcrisis,withattendantpublicstrikes,increasedviolenceandincreasingdemandstowrestcontrolofthemostproductivelandfromwhiteformerRhodesianswhohadbeengrandfatheredoutoflandreforminthe1980settlementbrokeredbytheBritish.c*  #  13       #"   WhileMugabehadalwaysusedracialandpoliticaldifferencestoestablishthe t% $ authenticityandauthorityofhisgovernment,in1995henominatedanewthreattotheidentityofintegrityofZimbabweansociety:homosexuality.Againstabackdropofescalatingpolitical,socialandeconomicchaos,in1995Mugabebeganapubliccampaignagainstlesbiansandgaymen,activelyencouragingthenationalpresstoreportnegativelyonissuesrelatingtohomosexuality,andspeakingouthimselfinwaysthatinvitedviolenceagainstgaymenandlesbians.  #  14      ׀ThatyearheorderedtheZimbabweInternationalBookFairtobananexhibitbythe    civilrightsgroup,Gays&LesbiansofZimbabwe.Lesbiansandgaymenwere"sexualperverts"whoare"lowerthandogsandpigs",claimedMugabe.Hewarnedhomosexualstoleavethecountry"voluntarily"orface"direconsequences."Soonafterwards,Mugabeurgedthepublictotrackdownandarrestlesbiansandgaymen.Sincetheseincitements,menandwomenperceivedtobegayorlesbianhavebeenbeatenup,firebombed,arrested,interrogatedandthreatenedwithdeath.[  #  15      ׀Mugabejustifiedtheseremarksonthegroundthathomosexualityis  "unAfrican",describingitas"comingfromsocalleddevelopednations,"labellinghomosexuality"awhiteproblem."Surely,noneofhisdomesticorinternationaltroublescouldbetracedbacktosamesexsexualpractices,yetMugabedevotedconsiderabletimeandvitrioltothe problemofgaypeopleinZimbabwe,andmanyobservers,bothdomesticallyandinternationally,heldtheviewthatMugabeunleashedsuchhomophobicvitriolasawayto !   distractattentionawayfromthegovernmentsgrowingeconomicandpoliticalproblems.Ofcourse,thegrowthinvisibilityoflesbiansandgaysinZimbabweinthemid1990sprovidessomeexplanationforwhyMugabechosethisgroupatthistimetovilifyinsuchapublicway.  Whatismore,theaggressiveimposition,ifnot,inventionoftraditionalandauthenticZimbabweanculturethroughtheassertionofheterosexualityaroseatatimeinwhichZimbabwehadlostanormativeantipodalanchoragainstwhichithadasserteditsownsuperioridentity:ApartheidSouthAfrica.Priorto1991, notonlydidtheapartheidgovernmentprovideZimbabwewithanexternalmilitary,economicandpoliticalthreatonwhichtofocus,butitpresentedtheZimbabweangovernmentwithamoralhighgroundeasilyoccupied.BothofthesefactorsprovidedamoralpoliticalimpetusandacertaincohesiontogovernmentandsocietyinanewlyliberatedZimbabwe,aswellassometimesexcusingordistractingfrominternalproblems.  #  16      ׀ThedissolutionofapartheidinZimbabwesneighbortothesouthwithdrewthe  specterofanevilempirewithwhichtocontrastMugabescivic,Africanandpoliticalvirtue.  Bythemid1990's,membersoftherulingZANUPFpartyinparliamentspokeoutagainst"theevilandiniquitouspracticeofhomosexualismandlesbianism."Onepartymemberdeclared,"IwouldliketocallforalltraditionalforcesinthiscountrytorallybehindtheStatePresidentintheeradicationofhomosexualism.Ifeelthatallthosewhoknowhomosinthiscountryshouldmakethembebroughtbeforethecourtsoflawandbetriedfortheirevilactivity."BorderGezi,thegovernorofMashonalandCentralProvince,declaredthatgaysandlesbianshave"somethingwrongintheirheads"andthathomosexualityiscompletelyalientoZimbabweanculture."Theyhavenorighttopracticehomosexualityinourcountry,"hesays."If )h$( theydon'tlikeit,theycanleave."  #  17      ׀Tocapitalloff,in1998,theMugabegovernment  successfullyprosecutedtheformerPresidentCanaanBananaforsodomy.  Ofcourse,MugabesassertionofauthenticAfricanheterosexualitydissolvesundertheslightestpressure.Notonlywasthereabroadarrayofsamesexsexualpracticesbetweenmenintheprecolonialperiod,b  #  18      ׀butthenotionthathumanbeingspossessedasexuality,suchthatit  H couldbeorganizedintohomoandheterosexualities,wasitselfanartifactofBritishcolonialrule.  #  19      ׀PriortothecivilizingmissionsofthecolonialoccupationinRhodesia,humansexuality   wasunderstoodinreproductivetermsthatwereconstitutiveofkinshipnetworksandfamilialwealth.Thereproductionofpatrilinealorderwastheorganizingforcebehindhumansexuality,notsexualidentityofobjectchoiceframedintermsofdesire. Whatwasimportantwasconsequentialphysicalactivityratherthanprojectedcognitivedesire.  #  20      ׀Thus,theMugabe 4 governmentsassertionofanauthentic,precolonialAfricansexualitypresupposesanapproachtosexualitythathasnoAfricanroots,andthecampaignagainstgaypeopleinZimbabwewasundertaken,insignificantpart,throughtheenforcementof,ifnotmerelyreferenceto,lawscriminalizinghomosexualitythathadbeenenactedbytheBritishduringcolonialrule.^   #  21       ,|   WhilehomosexexistedinZimbabwepriortoMugabesstrategicinterpellationofagaythreat, XXXXhehasintroducedthewordandconceptofasexualityintoa?+ 4 <DL!X?previouslyvirginalpublic  discourse;hehasbeenavirulentpropagandistforthewholeconceptofabinarydivision,wherethoseboundarieswerepreviouslyblurred.ThisisnottosuggestthatZimbabweisnowfloodedwithselfidentifiedsamesexlovers!itissimplytosuggestthathehasparticipatedintheconstitutionofanewidentity!onethatisindividualised,sexualised,andinthisform,historicallymarginalised.Further,bypublicisinghishomophobiaPresidentMugabehasgivenanidentitytomanywhowerepreviouslyignorantoforuncaringaboutit.#XXXXѲS#D  #  22      ׀Mostsignificant, n  forpresentpurposes,Mugabehascreatingaconstituencyofmarginalizeddissenterswhohavelookedtointernationalhumanrightsasasourceofprotectionfromgovernmentpolicies.GALZsclaimsthatitsmembersshouldenjoyarighttoprotectionagainstsexualorientationbaseddiscriminationhasbeenputtogoodusebyMugabe,whohasusednationalismtoframetheinterestsofZimbabweanpeople,incontrasttothe individualfreedomofpervertsandsodomists.Eb  #  23      ׀Therightsofthesingularmustyieldtotheinterestsofthecollectivity. Z   HumanrightsactivistshavecritiquedtheMugabegovernmentsattacksonhomosexualityasameanstodistractattentionawayfromthenationspoliticalandeconomicproblems.Sotoo,thiscampaignhasbeeninterpretedthroughapostcoloniallens,playingtoblackZimbabweansnotionsofauthenticAfricansexualityandidentifyinggaynesswithotherimperialistthreatsintheformoftheWorldBank,whitelandownersandotherRhodesian t% $ residue.TheperversityofthewayinwhichhomosexualityhasbeenusedbyMugabeinconnectionwithhislargerpoliticalprojectsisnobetterexemplifiedthanhisaccusationthattheBritishGovernmenthadset"gaygangsters"onhimoverhislandreforms._  #  24      ׀Mugabethussets T himselfupasabesiegedAfricanleaderbeingunderminedbythe(gay)handofapriorcolonialpower,whilehetriestorestorelandtohisblack(male)constituents.MugabehaseffectivelyturnedtosexualitytoproduceanormalheterosexualcitizensetoffagainstagaythreattoZimbabweansocietyinsuchawaythat relationsofsubjugationcanproducesubjects,definedbytheirvariedtransgressionsas internalenemiesofsocietyandstate.#b  #  25      ׀Theseinternal n  enemieshaveservedastheantipodalpointagainstwhichMugabesZimbabwecandefineitselfbyreferencetowhatitisnot.  Insomeways,whatconcernshumanrightsworkersthemostisthedexteritywithwhichMugabehasusedtheattacksongaypeopleasasteppingstoneforbroaderattacksonhisrivalsandforconsolidatinghisdwindlingpower.MugabecorrectlyanticipatedthatthehumanrightscommunityinZimbabwewouldnotrespondtotheattacksongaymenandlesbians,indeed,manydidnotregardthisasahumanrightsissueatall.Havingmetscantoppositiontohispoliciesattackinglesbiansandgays,Mugabemovedontogainfurtherpoliticaladvantagebyunderminingwomensrights.GivenhowfundamentallanddistributionandredistributionistoZimbabweanpolitics,particularlytosupportersoftherulingZANUPFparty,Mugabeundertookseveraloflandreformpoliciesthatexplicitlydisempoweredwomen.In1998theministerin t% $ chargeofresettlement,JosephMsika,rejectedwomen'sdemandsforlandpermitstobeautomaticallyregisteredinthenameofbothspouses,andforthefivemillionhectaresearmarkedforredistributiontobegiventosingle,unmarriedwomenorwomenheadsofhouseholds.Hejustifiedthesepoliciesonthegroundthatgrantingwomenlandrightswouldcreatedomestic(household)unrest.  #  26        H   ThegovernmentspoliciesonwomenandlandownershipoperationalizedwhathadbeenlongstandinginformalpolicywithrespecttowomensrightsclaimsinZimbabwe.ShortlyaftertheSupremeCourtheldinthe1984Katekwecaseb  #  27      ׀thatseductiondamages(orlossoflobolaor n  brideprice)wasalegalassetownedbytheseducedfemale,nothermaleguardian,MugabejokedinParliament thatifhissisterweretogetmarried,hewoulddemandlobolaandifthe b intendedhusbandpointedtotheKatekwejudgement,hewouldsaytohim,O.K.Thatisthe 4 judgement.Doyouwanttomarrymysisterornot?  #  28          ThegovernmentsofficialuseofwomenasawedgeissueinlandpolicygainedjuridicalpowerafterMugabepackedtheSupremeCourtwithhissupportersin1999.  #  29      ׀Immediately Z thereafter,theSupremeCourtruledonawomansclaimtoarighttoinheritherfathersproperty ,| afterherhalfbrotherevictedherfromherdeceasedfathershouse.TheCourtunanimouslyrejectedherclaimonthegroundthatthe"natureofAfricansociety"dictatesthatwomenarenotequaltomen,especiallyinfamilyrelationships.Undercustomarylaw,onlymencaninheritandallfamilymembersaresubordinatetothemaleheadofthefamily. Womenshouldneverbeconsideredadultswithinthefamily,butonlyasajuniormaleorteenager.  #  30      ׀Thecourtcarefully  H frameditsrulingasnecessarilydrivenbythecustomarylawofthetribeinwhichthedeceasedfatherhadbeenamember,andterselydismisseddomesticlawsandinternationaltreatiesthatrequiredsexequalityasimposingcolonial,notindigenous,lawandnormsontheZimbabweanpeople.y  #  31      ׀TherulingresultedinfiftyeightyearoldVeniaMagayabeingevictedfromherhome @ byherfatherssecondwifesson,andithashaddevastatingimplicationsforwomeninZimbabwegiventhat70percentoftheagriculturallaborforceinZimbabwearewomenwhoworkonthesoilbutcannotownlandintheirownright.  Mugabemovedonfromtherewhenheinvitedviolenceagainsthispoliticalopposition,^-  #  32        supportedextrajudicialseizureoflandsownedbywhitefarmersK  #  33      ׀anddefendedtheviolence  perpetratedagainstboththewhitefarmownersandtheirblackfarmemployees.Inthewakeoftheseescalatingtactics,theZimbabweanhumanrightscommunityhasbecomeseverelyweakenedandfractured.  Mugabehasdemonstratedhoweffectiveitcanbeforagovernmentunderenormouspressuretocreateaclimateofintoleranceandlawlessnessbystartingwithsexualminoritiesand    workingoutfromtheretotherestofcivilsociety.AsScottLonghasobservedaboutvariousSouthernAfricanleaders, thegovernmentusedthespectreofsexualperversiontodiscreditthewholeofcivilsociety.  #  34      ׀Justas nationalistrhetoricmakeswomenthepureandahistorical @ signifierofinteriority7   #  35      ׀itstrategicallyrenderssexualpervertastheursubjectofexteriority. b While womanbecomesthemutebutnecessaryallegoricalgroundforthetransactionsofnationalisthistory,8   #  36      ׀gaynesscomesintofocusnotasgroundbutasfigureasotherwhose  assimilationintothewholeisregardasathreattothenation.  InZimbabwe,thestatehasgainedanofficialsexualityfreefromcolonialcontamination,threatstotherulingregimehavebecomesexualized,andsexualdisciplineisrevealedtobea ,| veryeffectivetoolofgovernanceforastateindangeroustimes.Allofthishasproducedaprecinctofdissentingsexualoutlaws,congealedintotheconstituencybasedGALZ,whosejobitistogivevoicetothatdissent.0  II. TheMoralEnclosureofSexualThreatsinEgypt  H(#(#   InMay2001,52meninCairo,Egyptwerearrestedforsuspectedconsensualsamesexsexualacts.TheyweretriedbeforeanEgyptianEmergencyStateSecurityCourtonchargesofobscenebehaviorandcontemptforreligion,asEgyptianlawdoesnotexplicitlycriminalizehomosexualconduct.TheEmergencyStateSecurityCourtswerecreatedin1981aftertheassassinationofPresidentAnwarSadat,andsincethenhissuccessorHosniMubarakhasruledunderastateofemergencyauthorizingsuspensionofarangeofcivilandpoliticalrights.6  #  37       :   Anunprecedentedstatesponsoredmediacampaignpublicizedthearrestsandtrialsoftheaccusedtheirnames,placesofworkand,insomecases,pictureswerepublishedinthestateownedmedia.K  #  38      ׀TheaccusedwerearrestedintheearlyhoursofMay11,2001,followingaraid ` bypoliceandStateSecurityIntelligencepersonnelonapartyheldaboardtheQueenBoat,mooredontheNileinCairosZamalekdistrict.InitialreportsintheEgyptianmediasuggestedthatthosearrestedwerepartofa Sataniccultandthattheywerebeingheldunderchargesof exploitingreligiontopromoteextremeideastocreatestrifeandbelittletherevealedreligions. #" Itsubsequentlybecameclearthatthearrestswerecarriedoutbecausethemenweresuspectedofengaginginconsensualsexualactivitywithothermen.Thedetaineesweresubjectedtoforensicexaminations,apparentlyinordertodeterminewhethertheyhadengagedinanalintercourse.  #  39      ׀ T InNovember,2001,thedefendantswerebroughtintocourtandwerepromptlyplacedinacageinthecourtroomwheretheystoodwearingmasksandhoodstheyhadconstructedoutoftheirshirtsandunderwearinordertodisguisetheiridentitiesfromthemediapresentinthecourt.Indeed,onlythemediawasallowedinthecourtroomwhenthejudgereadouttheverdictsandsentences,familiesandfriendsoftheaccusedwerenotpermittedtobepresent,andtheircriesfromthehallandbangingonthecourtroomdoorsrumbledinthecourtroomasthejudgebegantheproceedings.Thejudgereadthecourtsverdictinawhisperthatnooneintheroomcouldhear,indeedmanydefendantsdidnotknowwhethertheyhadbeenfoundguiltyorwhatsentencetheyhadbeengivenforsomedays.  Intheend,twentythreeofthefiftytwodefendantsweresentencedtobetweenoneandfiveyearsofhardlabor.K  #  40      ׀However,inMay,2002theStateSecurityOfficefortheRatification Z ofVerdictsoverturnedmostoftheCairo52convictionsandreleased21ofthemenwhohadbeenfoundguiltyofthe habitualpracticeofdebauchery.Thecourttookthisactiononthegroundthatthiscrimedidnotmerittrialbeforethespecialemergencycourt,andorderedthatthesemen,aswellasthosewhohadbeenacquittedintheCairo52trial,beretriedinacivilian #" court.  #  41      B.` hp x (#XB    HowtounderstandtheseverypublicscandalousshowtrialsundertakenbytheEgyptiangovernmentinthepress,theEmergencySecurityCourt,andnowEgyptiancivilcourts?AsinZimbabwe,somehaveobservedthattheMubarakgovernmentdesiredtodivertpublicattentionawayfromeconomicproblemsandagrowingliquiditycrisiswhilethegovernmentattemptedtoimposenewsalestaxes.K  #  42      ׀Onecouldalsoimaginethatthegovernmenthadamplereasonto    shoreupitsIslamiccredentialsdomesticallyasitfounditselfincreasinglyalliedwiththeU.S.governmentinitscampaignagainstterrorism.Scandaloussextrialsmightdothetrick.SomehumanrightsgroupshaveinterpretedtheprosecutionoftheCairo52asanindicatorofhowIslamicsocietiestreatsexuality.  YetitmaybethattheCairo52caserepresentssomethingmuchmorecomplicatedthatMubaraksattempttodistracthispeoplefromdomesticeconomicproblems,oraninstanceofIslamicsexualrepression.SituatingthiscaseinthehistoryofbothIslamandthelegalregulationofsexinEgyptrevealshowthepublicprosecution,atthismoment,ofmensuspected Z ofhomosexualactsservestheinterestsoftheEgyptianseculargovernmentspostcolonialstruggleforindependenceinthefaceofbothdomesticandinternationalthreatsofinstability.Indeed,theseprosecutionsmayadvancetheMubarakgovernmentspatternofrepressingislamic !   activismontheonehand,andsecuringthesymbolicpurityofEgyptiancultureontheother.  ThelawsunderwhichtheCairo52wereprosecutedfindtheirrootsinpostcolonial t% $ campaignsagainstprostitution.Egyptianlawdoesnotexpresslycriminalizehomosexualacts.However,theobscenitychargesthatwerebroughtagainstthesemencameunderArticle9(c)ofLawNo.10of1961ontheCombatofProstitution.WhentheBritishoccupiedEgyptin1882,theyimposedaformof regulationismofprostitution.  #  43      ׀Ratherthanoutlawingit,whichwould & v havecomportedwithChristiancolonialmoralizinginevidenceelsewhere,theBritishsetouttoregulatelegalizedprostitutionrequiringtheregistrationofprostitutes,weeklymedicalinspectionsofsexworkers,andrestrictingthesextradetocertainlicensedestablishments.b  #  44      ׀In   Egypt,asinmanyotherareascolonizedduringthisperiod,prostitutionwaslegalized,insignificantpart,forthebenefitofEuropeansettlersandsoldiers.  #  45      ׀Dunnesresearchshowsthat @ thenumberofregisteredprostitutesinCairojumpedfrom921in1914to2,540in1915,andthenfelloffasthewarwounddown.#   #  46      ׀Legalizedandregulatedprostitutionremainedavitalpartof 4 EgyptianurbanlifethroughtheremainderofBritishrule,notwithstandingreformandabolitioncampaignsundertakenduringthatsameperiodinBritainandinmanyofitsothercolonies.    Egyptiannationalists,however,seizedonprostitutionimmediatelyafternationalindependenceasanexampleofthesocialillsthatbefellEgyptunderBritishoccupation.  #  47      ׀  EgyptianFeministHudaSharawideclaredinthenationalnewspaperLEgytienneinFebruaryof T 1925thatthestruggleagainstlicensedbrothelswasamatterofnationalhonor,andthattheabolitionistcausewas patrioticandhumanitarian.b  #  48      ׀  H   Shortlythereafter,IslamicnationalistsbeganacampaigntolinktheabolitionofprostitutiontoEgyptiannationalismandIslam.r   #  49      ׀Theabolitionofprostitutionbecamea   principlegoalofdecolonization,andtheultimaterepealoflawslegalizingprostitutionafterBritishoccupationwasexplicitlyunderstoodtorepresentarejectionofthepromiscuityofaliensexualculture,andthepurgingofaliensexworkersfromEgyptsurbanspaces.#   #  50      ׀ b   YettheindependentEgyptiangovernmentdidnotrepealtheBritishlawslicensingprostitutionandregulatingbrothelsuntil1949,fullytwentysevenyearsafterindependence.  SomeofthedelaycanbeattributedtothepresenceofalliedtroopsinEgyptduringtheSecondWorldWar.  #  51      ׀AndmuchtimewasdevotedtotheworkoftheCommissionofEnquiry,charged  in1932withthetaskofconsideringalternativestoregulatedprostitution.y  #  52      ׀TheMuslim T BrotherhoodbegantoplayaroleinEgyptianpoliticsinthe1930s,urgingareorientationofthecultureinkeepingwithIslamicprinciples.Theirinfluencetookholdinthelate1940sandearly1950s.PrimeMinisterIbrahimAbdelHadiPashaissuedamilitarydecreeclosingthebrothelsin1949,inpartinresponsetocriticismthegovernmenthadreceivedfromtheMuslimBrotherhoodregardingthegovernmentspolicypermittingprostitution,gamblinganddrinkingofalcohol.*  #  53      ׀ n  Withoutquestion,legalreformsduringthisperiodwereundertakenforcomplexsetsofreasons,howevertwoimportantconcernshadasignificanteffectuponthegovernmentsapproachtoprostitutionafterindependence:antiimperialistEgyptiannationalismarticulatedassexualpurity,andthesecularstatedefendingitselfagainstthegrowingpoweroftheMuslimBrotherhood.  ThesetwoconcernsfigureprominentlyintheprosecutionoftheCairo52undermodernEgyptiancriminallawtargetingprostitution.First,theEmergencySecurityCourtsinwhichthesemenweretriedwereoriginallysetuptotryIslamicfundamentalists.Since1992hundredsofcivilians,mostlyallegedmembersorsupportersofalGihad(HolyStruggle,knownabroadas !   EgyptianIslamicJihad),alGama'aalIslamiyya(IslamicGroup),ortheMuslimBrotherhood, #" havebeenreferredtomilitarycourts.Thesetrials,sometimesheldenmasse,havebeencriticized t% $ byHumanRightsWatchandotherhumanrightsorganizationsforfailingtomeetinternationalfairtrialstandards:basicrights,suchastherighttoappeal,havebeenroutinelyviolated,evenincaseswherethedefendantsfacedandwerepunishedwiththedeathpenalty.  #  54      ׀Thewell T publicizedprosecutionoftheCairo52inthesesamecourtssendsamessagetoaninternationalaudiencethatthecourtsdonotexistexclusivelytoharassandpersecutethereligiousopposition.Indeed,thesecourtscanbeusedtoprosecutetheverygroupsthattheIslamistshatethemost.  Whatismore,inrecentyearsofnationaleconomiccontraction,IslamicgroupshavesteppedintoprovidesocialservicespreviouslyprovidedbytheEgyptianstate.Asaresult,theMuslimBrotherhoodandsimilarorganizationshavegainedpopularityamongtheEgyptianpeople.AlthoughofficiallybannedbytheEgyptiangovernmentsince1954,theMuslimBrotherhoodhas17seatsintheEgyptianParliament,makingitthesecondlargestpartyintheparliamentaftertherulingNationalDemocraticParty.b  #  55      ׀Thus,theMubarakgovernmenthas  ampleincentivetoundertakeapubliccampaigntoappeasethesupportersoftheBrotherhood,andmenaccusedofhomosexualitywouldservewell.ThegovernmentguessedcorrectlythattheEgyptianhumanrightscommunitywouldbereluctanttocometotheiraid.  Whatismore,antiimperialistrhetorichasfiguredintheCairo52prosecutionsjustasitdidintheeffortstoreformthecolonialprostitutionlawsafterindependence.Thistime,thealiensexualculturetobekeptatbayisthe west,notmerelytheBritish.Thenasnow, bothnationalistandIslamistdiscourseshaveinvokedidealsofIslamicmoralityandcultural t% $ authenticitytocontrolandchannelchange.  #  56      ׀AsNevilleHoadhaspointedout, Claimsof  authenticityand/orforeignnesstakeplaceinanextremelyvexedrepresentationalfield.K  #  57          Thus,theseprosecutionshavebeenusefulonanumberofgrounds:itappears tobeacalculatedgamblebyaninsecureregime.Thecrackdownongays,asdiplomatsandpoliticalanalystsseeit,reflectsgovernmentconcernaboutgrowingfreedomofexpressioninEgyptfueledbytheproliferationofInternetchatroomsandWebsitesbeyondtheregimescontrol.ThegovernmentmayalsohavecontrivedtheprosecutionstobolsteritsIslamiccredentialsatatimewhenEgyptiansareangeredbyanimplodingeconomyandthearrestsoffundamentalists.Thestrategymaybeworking.Althoughcondemnedabroad,thetrialoftheCairo52'hasmetwithnearlyuniversalapprovalathome.  #  58      ׀ b   InEgypt,asinZimbabwe,themoralenclosureofsexbeitheterosexualitywithinmonogamousmarriage,prostitutionorhomosexhasproventobeaneffectivetoolofgovernancebyastateunderstress.Priortothemidtwentiethcentury,samesexsexbetweenmaleswaswellknowandwidespreadinEgypt.Butonlythepassivepartner(constructedwithinthecontextofanalsex)wasconsideredtobehomosexualandwassubjecttocriminallawsprohibitinghomosexualacts.   #  59      ׀Curiously,thisdefinitionofhomosexualityhaschangedin N recentyears.ThroughtheCairo52prosecutions,thegovernmenthasdemonstratedtheadoptionofamore westernidentitybaseddefinitionofgayness.Rolenolongerdefinesthecrime,sexofobjectchoicedoesandthisisnewinMuslimsociety.Thus,atthemomentthattheEgyptiangovernmenthaschosentouse(homo)sextoconsolidateandrehabilitateitspower,ithasdonesobyfirstinterpellatingawesternhomosexualsubject,andthencaginghim,paradinghimbeforethepublic,andexcisinghimfromEgyptianculture.ThemoralenclosureinwhichthesegayoutlawsinEgypthavebeencagedreflectsakindofterritorialization,orsocialmappingbyagovernmentalpoweronthesexualizedbody.  Here,asinZimbabwe, internalenemieshavebeenlocatedwithinthepoliticalhorizonofthestatenotfromwithoutaswouldhavebeenthecasewithforeignprostitutesorresidualcolonialists.Sotoo,sexualaccusationhassuppliedthemechanismofjustificationbywhichqualitiesdeemedundesirablemaybecontainedorexcised.Thesedomesticenemiesemergefirstasanabstractlegalcategory thesodomiteor theperverthabituatedtodebauchery,thatistobefilledupwithbodiesreally,anybodiesthroughanactofnominalviolencewithprofoundepistemiceffects. You,andyouandyou,commandsthestateasitarrestsEgyptianmen  #  60      ׀off ,| thestreet,oftenrandomly.Throughthesepublicactsoflawenforcement,sexisstampedonmalebodiesinanactwherebyqualitiesdeemedundesirablemaybecontainedorexcisedthroughsexualaccusationbythepostcolonialstateinitsattemptstodefineanidealizednation.(y  #  61       #"    t% $ Ї0  III.DisciplinaryAdministrationofAfricanAmericanSexualCitizenshipinthepost  CivilWarSouth (#(#   TheperiodinwhichAfricanAmericansenteredtheU.S.civilpolityascitizenswas,mostassuredly,amongthemostcomplexperiodsofstate(re)formationinthenationshistory.Theenumerationandenforcementofcivilrightsforfreedmenandwomen,beginningwiththeCivilRightsActof1866,   #  62      ׀playedacentralroleinthecreationoflegalandpoliticalidentitiesfor    AfricanAmericanpeople.Butthesepoliticalidentities"asfreedpeople"werenotselfexecutingupontheratificationoftheThirteenthorFourteenthAmendments.Rather,AfricanAmericansstatusascitizenswasanidentitytobemanagedbyvariouspublicandprivateactorsintheimmediatepostbellumperiod. Beingafreecitizen,hemustactasone,carryingtheburdens,ifhesoconsidersthem,aswellasenjoyingtheprivilegesofhisnewcondition, y  #  63       4 cautionedthechiefjudgeoftheGeorgiaSupremeCourtin1881.Similarly,FreedmensBureauagentswere instructedtoactasGeneralCounsellorsfortheFreedpeoplewithintheirrespectivedistricts,andtogivethemsuchadviceaswilltendmosttotheirultimategood,andmakethemhonestanduprightcitizens.*  #  64      ׀AsIhavediscussedelsewhere,conformancewith ,| latenineteenthcenturymaritalnormswasregardedbybothFreedmensBureauagentsandlocal Southernofficialsasoneoftheprincipalwaysinwhichthefreedmenandwomencouldbe !   civilizedandpreparedforthedemandsofcitizenship.  #  65           Thus,forAfricanAmericansinthisera,thetransitionfromenslavementtofreedomandcitizenshipmeantashiftinthedomainofpersonalgovernance,fromthatofanownertothatofstatemonitoredselfgovernance.Indeed,ratherthansecuringadomainofautonomyandfreedomfromgovernmentregulation,inclusionintothedomainofrightsascitizenssignifieda politicoethicalprojectofproducingsubjectsandgoverningtheirconduct.b  #  66      ׀Whatformdid    thistakeforAfricanAmericansinthepostbellumera?Howwassexualitypartofthispoliticoethicalproject?  AsUniontroopsmovedthroughtheSouth,enslavedpeoplefledtheirownersforthesafetyoftheNorthernarmysencampments,seekingsafety,foodandshelter.Quicklyoverwhelmedbythenumbersandneedsoftheblackpeopleseekingaid,theU.S.government quicklysetuprefugeecamps,or contrabandcampsastheywerecalledatthetime,  #  67      ׀inorder  togaintheirlibertyandtheprotectionofNortherntroops.  #  68      ׀Thedestitution,disease,andneedof   thesepeople,freedbycircumstance,wasoverwhelming.HenryRowntree,arepresentativeofthefederalagencyhastilyformedtoaddresstheneedsofindigentblackpeople,describedthelivingconditionsofvariousfreedpeopleatVicksburg,Mississippi,inthespringof1864asfollows:0  Icalledatacattleshedwithoutanysiding,therehuddledtogetherwere35poorwretchedlyhelplessnegros,onemanwhohadlostoneeyeentirely,andthesightoftheotherfastgoing,hecoulddonothing. (#(# 0  FivewomenallMothers,andtheresidueof29children,allsmallandunder12yearsofage.OneoftheWomenhadthesmallpox,herfaceaperfectmassofScabs,herchildrenwereleftuncaredforexceptforwhattheyincidentally[received].Anotherwomanwasnursingalittleboyabout7whoseearthlylifewasfastebbingaway,shecouldpaybutlittleattentiontotherestofherfamily.Anotherwasscarcelyabletocrawlabout. (#(# 0  Theyhadnobedding.Twooldquiltsandasoldiersoldwornoutblanketcomprisedthewholefor35humanbeings.Ienquiredhowtheyslept,theycollecttogethertokeeponeanotherwarmandthenthrowthequiltsoverthem.Thereisnowoodforthemnearerthanhalfamilewhichthesepoorchildrenhavetotoatastheycouldcarry,hencetheyhaveapoorsupplyandthesamewithwater,thishasbecarriedthesamedistanceandtheonlyvesseltheyhadtocarryitinwasaheavy2gallonstonejug,aloadforachildwhen t% $ empty. (#(# 0  TheyownedOnePan,andoneIronkettleamongstthem,theyhadnotincup,nocrockeryofanykind,noknivesorforks,andcertainlywerethepoorestoff,ofanyIhavemetwithbeinglitterallyandtruthfullydestituteineverysenseoftheword.  #  69      & v(#(#   ThisdescriptionwasnotatypicalofthelivingconditionsoftheformallyenslavedpeoplewhohadescapedbehindUnionlines.  Asthefederalgovernmentdeliberatedoverhowtohandlethesizablepopulationoffreedmenandwomen,virtuallyallofwhomwereindesperateneedofmaterialaid,akeydecisionwasmadewithrespecttomeetingthatneed.Theneedsoffreedmenandwomen,aswellasthestructurefortheirtransitionfromenslavementtocitizen,wouldbemetnotbyprovidingthemwithmaterialresources(suchasland,food,orreparations),butbyprovidingthemwithrights.Intheend,lawnotlandiswhatU.S.governmentfeltthefreedmenneededmost.Andthatswhattheygotlotsofit. Freedomdeliveredcoldcomforttothoseformerlyenslavedpeoplewhosoughttheaidoffederalofficersattheendofthewar.  Thuslegalstatus,notmaterialresources,wasusedtoaddressthetransitionfromenslavementtofreedomforAfricanAmericanpeople.Inthiscase,rightsoperatednotonlyastheframewithinwhichfreedmenandwomenweretoexercisetheirnewfoundfreedom,but !   alsoasapoliticalhorizon: thejustsociety.TheBureauAgentsweretheretodefinewhattheserightsmeant,andwhatobligationstheyimposedonfreedmenandwomen.  Inthefaceoftheoverwhelminghumansuffering,illnessanddesperationthatAfricanAmericanpeoplepresentedwhentheysoughtrefugeincontrabandcamps,Northernofficialsfirstresponsewasnottodeliverfoodandshelter,buttoinsistthatalladultcouplesbemarried,andthattraditionalfamilygroupingsbeformedbeforeanyonecouldgainentrancetothecamps.InApril1863,Eatonreportedthat"allenteringourcampswhohavebeenlivingordesiretolivetogetherashusbandandwifearerequiredtobemarriedinthepropermanner....Thisregulationhasdonemuchtopromotethegoodorderofthecamp."  #  70      ׀InMarch1864,the @ SecretaryofWarmadeEaton'sregulationofficialUnitedStatespolicy,andorderedFreedmen'sBureauagentsto"solemnizetheriteofmarriageamongFreedmen."  #  71      ׀Thereafter, 4 superintendentsofthecontrabandcampsuniformlyreportedthat"theintroductionoftheriteofchristianmarriageandrequiringitsstrictobservance,exertedamostwholesomeinfluenceupontheorderofthecampsandtheconductofthepeople."  #  72       Z   WholesomenesswasnottheonlysalutaryconsequenceintendedbytheFreedmensBureausmarriagepolicy.ManyBureauofficersexpressedthewidespread%  viewthatthetransitionfromslavetocitizenwouldrequireAfricanAme